Benin
BeninWhat this score means
- Extreme75 to 100
- Severe and systematic. Device search, interception and detention over online activity are documented rather than theoretical. Reconsider what you carry and what you say.
- High50 to 74
- Substantial and consistently evidenced measures. Device inspection, monitored networks or restricted services should be expected rather than treated as unlikely.
- Caution25 to 49
- Some risk, and manageable with precautions. Measures are evidenced but are narrow, inconsistently applied, or the picture is mixed.
- Low0 to 24
- Ordinary precautions. No systematic device search, network restriction or prosecution of visitors for online speech is evidenced.
Government travel advice is written for one citizenry, so the same country carries a different assessment depending on your passport. Change it in the header.
Showing the baseline, which weights every issuer equally. No government in our corpus publishes travel advice written for you, so this is not addressed to you specifically.
For United Kingdom nationals: 45 (caution). This leans on advice written for British nationals, and weights other issuers lower.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between United Kingdom and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 1 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For Europe nationals: 47 (caution). This leans on advice written for German nationals, and weights other issuers lower.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between Europe and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 43 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For United States nationals: 46 (caution). This leans on advice written for US nationals, and weights other issuers lower.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between United States and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 1 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For Canada nationals: 46 (caution). This leans on advice written for Canadian nationals, and weights other issuers lower.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between Canada and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 1 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For Latin America and the Caribbean nationals: 46 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for Latin America and the Caribbean, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between Latin America and the Caribbean and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 33 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For Africa nationals: 45 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for Africa, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.
For Middle East nationals: 46 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for Middle East, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between Middle East and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 18 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For South Asia nationals: 46 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for South Asia, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between South Asia and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 14 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For East and South East Asia nationals: 46 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for East and South East Asia, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between East and South East Asia and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 19 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
For Oceania nationals: 46 (caution). No government in our corpus writes travel advice for Oceania, so this starts from the neutral baseline and is then adjusted for the relationship below.Adjusted by 2 percent for the relationship between Oceania and this destination.For most passports in this region, Benin requires an electronic visa, applied for and vetted before travel. Summarised across 14 passports, which do not all face the same rule. Source.A sanctions regime is not a measure of cyber risk. It is used as a bounded proxy for the closer attention nationals of a sanctioning state are reported to receive on entry, and it can move a score by a limited amount in either direction, never replace it.
Dimensions
Each dimension is scored independently, because the traveller who cares about legal exposure for what they have posted is often not the one carrying client data. Higher means more risk.
Speech and legal exposure
What legal risk attaches to what I have said online, or say while I am there?
good confidence8 independent sources
Why this score (16 sources)
Freedom House 2026 scored BEN 4 of 4 on freedom to express personal views on sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution.
Freedom House, Freedom in the World · observed 2026-01-01
Freedom House 2026 scored BEN 2 of 4 on free and independent media.
Freedom House, Freedom in the World · observed 2026-01-01
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 3.46 of 4 on how routinely the government censors political content on social media, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 1.39 of 4 on how often people are arrested for political content they posted online, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
Benin - Level 2: Exercise Increased Caution
US Department of State, Travel Advisories · observed 2026-01-07 · written for USA nationals
FCDO advice for Benin: avoid_all_travel_to_parts, avoid_all_but_essential_travel_to_parts.
UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign travel advice · observed 2025-12-15 · written for GBR nationals
Benin: Exercise a high degree of caution
Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories · observed 2026-10-14 · written for CAN nationals
Benin: Teilreisewarnung: partial travel warning in force
Auswärtiges Amt, Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise · observed 2026-10-09 · written for DEU nationals
Since the adoption of the Digital Code in 2018—particularly Article 550 on the dissemination of false information—several journalists, activists, and ordinary citizens have been arrested or intimidated for their online speech.
Paradigm Initiative, via a site scoped search · observed 2025-06-05 · extracted by language model
Le 16 décembre 2025, à Cotonou, les forces de sécurité ont arrêté Angela Kpeidja, journaliste et influenceuse, pour des commentaires qu’elle avait publiés sur Facebook au sujet de la tentative de coup d’État déjouée du 7 décembre 2025.
Our translation: On 16 December 2025, in Cotonou, security forces arrested Angela Kpeidja, a journalist and influencer, for comments she had published on Facebook about the foiled coup attempt of 7 December 2025.
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2026-04-03 · extracted by language model
The CSOs request electoral candidates’ commitment to revise restrictive laws, such as the Digital Code, which criminalises ‘publication of false information’ and ‘harassment through electronic communications’, to investigate security force excesses, end arbitrary detention, improve access to justice and promote gender equality, among other demands.
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2026-03-31 · extracted by language model
He was accused of “publishing false news and harassment via electronic communication” in violation of the laws of the Digital Code.
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2025-10-29 · extracted by language model
Les OSC demandent aux candidats aux élections de s’engager à réviser des lois restrictives, telles que le Code numérique, qui criminalise la « publication de fausses informations » et le « harcèlement par le biais de communications électroniques », à enquêter sur les excès commis par les forces de sécurité, à mettre fin aux détentions arbitraires, à améliorer l’accès à la justice et à favoriser l’égalité des sexes, entre autres.
Our translation: Civil society organisations ask election candidates to commit to revising restrictive laws, such as the Digital Code, which criminalises the “publication of false information” and “harassment through electronic communications”, to investigate abuses committed by security forces, to end arbitrary detentions, to improve access to justice and to promote gender equality, among other things.
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2026-04-03 · extracted by language model
On 3rd February 2026 Kingbo appeared before the CRIET, where she faced charges including electronic harassment, invasion of privacy, incitement to hatred and violence, and incitement to rebellion.
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2026-03-31 · extracted by language model
It is illegal to take photos at or near sensitive or government sites, such as military installations or the airport.
UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign travel advice · observed 2025-12-15 · written for GBR nationals · extracted by language model
On 24th March 2026, the CRIET in Cotonou sentenced Pascal Mitowadé, a journalist working for the private daily newspaper La Tribune de la capitale, to five years in prison and a fine of 10 million CFA francs (approximately 17,200 USD).
CIVICUS Monitor country updates · observed 2026-03-31 · extracted by language model
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
1 excluded source
- Committee to Protect Journalists, via a site scoped search, observed 2023-09-07: aged out after 3 years.
Border device risk
How likely is my device to be searched, imaged, or seized at the border, and can I be compelled to unlock it?
good confidence6 independent sources
Why this score (7 sources)
Freedom House 2026 scored BEN 2 of 4 on due process in civil and criminal matters.
Freedom House, Freedom in the World · observed 2026-01-01
Benin - Level 2: Exercise Increased Caution
US Department of State, Travel Advisories · observed 2026-01-07 · written for USA nationals
FCDO advice for Benin: avoid_all_travel_to_parts, avoid_all_but_essential_travel_to_parts.
UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign travel advice · observed 2025-12-15 · written for GBR nationals
Benin: Exercise a high degree of caution
Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories · observed 2026-10-14 · written for CAN nationals
Benin: Teilreisewarnung: partial travel warning in force
Auswärtiges Amt, Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise · observed 2026-10-09 · written for DEU nationals
Instead, they seized his phone and computer, took him briefly to an Ivorian law enforcement headquarters, and then escorted him aboard a plane that took him to Benin.
Committee to Protect Journalists, via a site scoped search · observed 2025-07-17 · extracted by language model
He said CRIET told him that authorities’ search of Ojoduma’s “phones and the hard drive revealed no information in this case relating to acts of terrorism,” but he was unable to share a copy of the court document for procedural reasons.
Committee to Protect Journalists, via a site scoped search · observed 2025-12-24 · extracted by language model
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
Network threat
How hostile is the network environment to a foreign visitor, from state actors and criminals alike?
good confidence3 independent sources
Why this score (4 sources)
ITU Global Cybersecurity Index 2024, Technical pillar: 19.29 of 20.
International Telecommunication Union, Global Cybersecurity Index · observed 2024-12-31
Cybercrime, malware attacks and online extortion occur in Benin.
Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories · observed 2026-10-16 · written for CAN nationals · extracted by language model
Cybercriminals can compromise public Wi-Fi networks in order to steal personal data or credit information.
Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories · observed 2026-10-16 · written for CAN nationals · extracted by language model
In March this year, the Nigeria Police Force arrested a suspect in Benin City over an alleged $550,000 cyber fraud targeting an American woman.
Premium Times feed · observed 2026-04-22 · extracted by language model
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
Connectivity continuity
How likely am I to lose access to the internet, or to the specific tools I depend on?
good confidence7 independent sources
Why this score (34 sources)
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 3.85 of 4 on how often the government shuts down domestic access to the internet, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 3.64 of 4 on how routinely the government filters internet content in practice, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
OONI recorded 0 confirmed and 43 anomalous results across 1,384 web connectivity measurements in BEN over the 30 days to 2026-10-16, a confirmed blocking rate of 0.00 percent.
Open Observatory of Network Interference, OONI measurement data · observed 2026-10-16
Benin - Level 2: Exercise Increased Caution
US Department of State, Travel Advisories · observed 2026-01-07 · written for USA nationals
FCDO advice for Benin: avoid_all_travel_to_parts, avoid_all_but_essential_travel_to_parts.
UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign travel advice · observed 2025-12-15 · written for GBR nationals
Benin: Exercise a high degree of caution
Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories · observed 2026-10-14 · written for CAN nationals
Benin: Teilreisewarnung: partial travel warning in force
Auswärtiges Amt, Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise · observed 2026-10-09 · written for DEU nationals
IODA detected 2 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-10, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,508.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-10
IODA detected 3 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-09, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,679.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-09
IODA detected 3 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-08, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,679.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-08
IODA detected 3 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-07, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,679.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-07
IODA detected 3 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-06, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,679.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-06
IODA detected 3 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-05, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,679.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-05
IODA detected 2 internet outage events affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-04, with an aggregate disruption score of 4,608.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-04
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-10-03, with an aggregate disruption score of 171.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-10-03
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-10, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-10
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-09, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-09
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-08, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-08
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-07, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-07
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-06, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-06
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-05, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-05
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-04, with an aggregate disruption score of 1,571.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-04
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-09-03, with an aggregate disruption score of 761.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-09-03
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-29, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-29
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-28, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-28
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-27, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-27
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-26, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-26
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-25, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-25
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-24, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-24
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-23, with an aggregate disruption score of 610.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-23
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-13, with an aggregate disruption score of 28.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-13
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-12, with an aggregate disruption score of 28.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-12
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-11, with an aggregate disruption score of 28.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-11
IODA detected 1 internet outage event affecting Benin in the 7 days to 2026-08-10, with an aggregate disruption score of 28.
Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis · observed 2026-08-10
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
1 excluded source
- Paradigm Initiative, via a site scoped search, observed 2021-07-01: aged out after 5 years.
Surveillance and interception
How comprehensively are communications intercepted, retained, and monitored, and is commercial spyware in use?
moderate confidence4 independent sources
Why this score (5 sources)
Freedom House 2026 scored BEN 4 of 4 on freedom to express personal views on sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution.
Freedom House, Freedom in the World · observed 2026-01-01
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 2.34 of 4 on how comprehensively the government monitors social media and private online communication, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 3.66 of 4 on how far privacy protection law shields communications from government access, where higher is freer. This measures what privacy law permits rather than what monitoring is practised, so it is read here as a constraint on interception rather than a measurement of it.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
The World Justice Project Rule of Law Index 2025 scored BEN 0.20 of 1 on whether freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy is effectively guaranteed, a measure built from expert assessments of warrantless interception of communications.
World Justice Project, Rule of Law Index, sub-factor 4.6 · observed 2025-01-01
Despite the creation of the Data Protection Authority (APDP) in 2009, enforcement of data protection remains weak, and cases of non-judicial surveillance have been reported.
Paradigm Initiative, via a site scoped search · observed 2025-06-05 · extracted by language model
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
Encryption and VPN legality
Are VPNs and strong encryption lawful, and can I be required to install an application or hand over keys?
moderate confidence1 independent source
No law or enforcement action was found restricting the use of a VPN or strong encryption here. The score below is drawn from general indicators for this country rather than from anything observed about this risk, so it describes an absence of reports rather than evidence that the risk is absent.
What the score rests on (1 indirect source)
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 2.76 of 4 on whether the government regulates the internet in a way consistent with international human rights standards, where higher is freer. This does not establish whether encryption or VPN use is lawful. It measures internet regulation in general, and is used as indirect evidence because the only survey that reads encryption law directly was published in 2019.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
Data jurisdiction
What happens to corporate or client data I carry into the jurisdiction?
moderate confidence1 independent source
Why this score (1 source)
V-Dem Digital Society Project 2025 scored BEN 3.66 of 4 on how far privacy protection law shields communications from government access, where higher is freer.
V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project · observed 2025-12-31
Report an inaccuracy (corrections need a link to the reporting, statute or research that shows it).
Trend
The overall score is up 11.2 points over 61 days, from 34.1 to 45.3. Most movement is the event overlay decaying rather than anything happening: a news signal loses half its weight every three weeks, so a score drifts back toward its structural baseline on its own. A step that holds is the one worth reading.
Check this yourself
These are not inputs to the score for Benin. They are where to look if you want to test what is above against something we did not use.
- OONI ExplorerMeasured tests of website and app blocking, updated continuously by volunteers running probes in country. Not used in our scores: its licence forbids commercial use.
- IODA outage recordThe full outage history behind any continuity events shown above, including the measurement methods that detected them.
- FCDO travel adviceThe UK government view, written for UK nationals.
- US State Department travel advisoriesThe US government view, written for US nationals.
Sources
This assessment draws on 14 sources: Auswärtiges Amt, Reise- und Sicherheitshinweise; CIVICUS Monitor country updates; Committee to Protect Journalists, via a site scoped search; Freedom House, Freedom in the World; Georgia Tech Internet Intelligence Lab, Internet Outage Detection and Analysis; Global Affairs Canada, Travel advice and advisories; International Telecommunication Union, Global Cybersecurity Index; Open Observatory of Network Interference, OONI measurement data; Paradigm Initiative, via a site scoped search; Premium Times feed; UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office, Foreign travel advice; US Department of State, Travel Advisories; V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg, Digital Society Project; World Justice Project, Rule of Law Index, sub-factor 4.6. Every contributing claim is quoted with its origin and date above. Model version 0.12.0, computed 2026-10-16.
If something here is wrong, say so. Corrections are handled in public, and we correct because the evidence is wrong, not because someone objects.